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Excerpts on Hand Positionsource: http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~wbc/hand/Technique.html
Vidal, Capirola lute book, c. 1517et il deo grosso de la ma[n] destra fa ch[e] sia sotto al secondo, et q[ue]sto azio no[n] se scontri uno deo co[n] laltro, nel bater de le bote, una in su laltra in zo, etc. Translation by Otto Gombosi in "Compositione di meser Vincenzo Capirola," Neuilly-Sur-Seine, 1955 page 2r And the thumb of the right hand should be placed under the second finger so that one finger does not meet the other in beating the strokes, one up and one down etc. -- and if you do not operate with the thumb, it is more beautiful if it is seen on the finger board. (typist: Wayne Cripps) Here is a translation by Fererico Marincola, in his "LuteBot Quarterly #1" How to use your (left) hand on the neck of the lute. When you play, keep your fingers close to the fingerboard and do not keep them too far away from the strings. This is very important, try to acquire this habit from the beginning, otherwise it will be very difficult to change it later. (How to use your right hand). When you have to pluck two notes upwards, one after the other, pluck the first with a finger, the second with another finger and the following one as they are written. Most of the time there will be (a succession of) downwards and upwards strokes. Keep the thumb of the right hand under the second finger [in this case "second finger" probably means "index", counting the thumb as the first finger], otherwise the two fingers, when plucking up and down, will clash with each other. The left (hand) should use the thumb, as it is more beautiful to see it on the neck (of the instrument). Letter from Antonio Costadili to Duke Alfonso D'Estedated 14 March, 1524, Modena, Archivio de Stato, Carteggio Ambasciatori, Roma, Busta 29, 198/II/25, fol. 2r. Cited in Paul O'Dette, "Some Observations about the Tone of Early Lutenists," Proceedings of the International Lute Symposium Utrecht 1986, ed. by Louis Peter Grijp and Willem Mook, STIMU Foundation for Historical Performance Practice. Utrecht, 1988. ". . . duo ditali d'argento, dentro quali sono due piccole penne. . ." "The American musicologist Jessie Ann Owens has recently discovered a letter of 1524, in which Francesco is said to have played using 'two silver thimbles inside of which were two small quills' on his right hand!" (p. 87) (typist: Caroline Usher) Hans Gerle, "Musica Teusch." Nuremburg, 1532.Nim den lautten kragen in die lincken hand und sez an der rechten hand den klein finger Und den goldfinger auff die deck nit auff den stern ein wenig dar hindther. . Also 2 2 2 2 o d 4 n So greiff das o. mit dem goltfinger und schlag es mit dem daumen untersich und darnach greiff das d. mit dem zaig finger und schlag es mit dem zaif finger ubersich. Darnach darffstu das 4. nit greiffen schlag es mit dem daumen untersich Darnach greiff auff das n. mit dem goldt-finger und schlag es mit dem zaig finger ubersich dan alweg wann sich ein Leuflein anhebt So musto es mit dem daumen anheben und das ander mit zaig finger Also das ein finger umb den andern geet einer untersich der ander ubersich unnd must sehen das du es wol ko:nnest treffen und behendt auff einander schlagen. (fols. Kiii, Kiii verso) Translation by Paul O'Dette, in Paul Beier, "Right Hand Position in Renaissance Lute Technique," Journal of the Lute Society of America 12 (1979), 5-24. Take the neck of the lute in the left hand, and set the little and ring fingers of the right hand on the belly, not on the rose. but a little behind it. [tablature example: 2 2 2 2 o d 4 n] Stop the o. with the ringfinger and strike it downwards with the thumb. After that, stop the d. with the index finger, striking it upwards with the index finger. The 4. you must not stop, strike it downwards with the thumb. Then stop the n. with the ring finger and strike it upwards with the index finger. Whenever there is a run, you must begin it with the thumb and [strike] the next [note] with the index finger. Thus one finger goes around the other, one downwards, the other upwards. You must make sure you can hit [the strings] accurately and can alternate nimbly with the two fingers. (typist: Caroline Usher) Hans Newsidler, "Ein Newgeordent Ku:nstlich Lautenbuch,"Nuremberg, 1536 Hie volget das erst Fundament der Lautten. Das is ein eineger langer lauff der ist darumb gemacht und gestelt das ein yeder anfahender schu:ler die zwen finger in der rechtne hand den daume und fordern finger lerne umbeinander schlagen der daume hebt an un schlecht abwertz und der fordern finger schlecht ubersich aber es kompt nur in den leuflein wie man hernach sein sehen umd versteen wu:rd und einer die zwen genanten finger fur und fur umb einander schlage den ersten ab den andern ubersich biss der lauff gar auss ist das merck das ist die gro:st kunst am lauten schlagen. (fol. C2 verso) Translation by Paul O'Dette, in Paul Beier, "Right Hand Position in Renaissance Lute Technique," Journal of the Lute Society of America 12 (1979), 5-24. Here follows the first exercise for the lute. It is a long run, which has been composed and arranged so that every beginning student will learn to strike with the thumb and index finger of the right hand moving around one another. The thumb begins and strikes downwards, and the index finger strikes upwards. But this occurs only in runs, as one will later see and understand. One strikes with the two aforementioned fingers moving around one another, the first [thumb] downwards. the other [index] upwards until the run is finished. Take note of this for it is the greatest art in lute playing. (typist: Caroline Usher) Adrian Le Roy,"A briefe and plaine introduction..."London 1574, from the cnrs edition, "Les Instructions Pour Le Luth", Paris 1977, f.65'.
(typist: Wayne Cripps) Ludwig Iselin, "Liber Ludovici Iselin et aricorum,"1575, Basel University Ms. F.IX.23 So man uff der lauten lernen will / so wirtt erstlich angezeigtt / wie man sich mit der rechten hand unden beij dem sternen halten solle. Erstlich setze den kleinen finger ein wenig under den stern / hindersich neben der Seiten / wen du schlechst / das glich die finger vor dem stern uffgen / und halt den kleinin finger sterck / uff und fest uff der lautten [next work illegible] / wie fil der stimmen fur kommen und [next work illegible] in die tabulatur / woruff ein yeder finger stehen muss / und uff ein mall geschlagen werden / was aber ein ander nach geht / soll auch nach ein ander / mitt dem dumen und zeig finger geschlagen werden / welches man Colloraturen heist. Zum andrenn / so merck auch fleissig / das du die finger all zu schlagen und Collorien gewonest / das dir der zeig finger lustig heran und heraus / und der dumen hinein in die hand gehe / welches nitt allein ein wolstand / sundern auch grossen nutz hinder im hatt / und mitt sich bringt so die behendikeit belangt zu Collorienn. . . . die leifflin oder colloraturen also [2-flag stems] oder also [3-flag stems] miessen gemacht werden / unden uff der lauten mit dem dumen und zeig finger / einer um den andren / und muss ein glichs leifflin angefangen werden / das der leste allwegen mit dem zeig finger uffgeschlagen werde. . . . Translation by Paul O'Dette, in Paul Beier, "Right Hand Position in Renaissance Lute Technique," Journal of the Lute Society of America 12 (1979), 5-24. If one wants to learn the lute, it will first be shown how one should hold the right hand, down near the rose. First, set the little finger a little below the rose near the strings, [so that] when you strike, the fingers open up [uffgen] in front of the rose. Hole the little finger firmly on the belly. When many voices are present, the tablature [will show? (not legible in the available copy of the manuscript)] where each finger is to be placed. These notes should be struck together. Whatever is shown one after the other should be played in succession with the thumb and index finger, which is called diminution [Colloraturen]. Also, pay close attention that you accustom the fingers to strike and embellish [collorien (sic!)] by moving the index finger merrily up and back [heran und heraus], and the thumb inwards to the hand. This is not only comfortable, but also makes good sense, and gives the agility needed to play diminutions. (typist: Caroline Usher) Thomas Robinson, The Schoole of MusickeThomas Robinson, The Schoole of Musicke perfectly teaching the true fingering of the Lute....." (1603), pages Bi(?)-Bii. (I think this has been reprinted by CNRS wbc) Under "Generall Rules""First sitting upright with your body, leane the edge of the Lute against the table, and your bodie against the Lute, not too hard for hurting your Lute, neither too softly for letting of it fall, for the table, your bodie, and your right arme, must so poyes the Lute, that you have your left hand at libertie to carie to, and fro, at your pleasure, letting the middle part of the neck of the Lute, slide up and down the brawne of the thumb which is against the nayle of the said thumb, houlding out the wrest of the hand, and alwaies carrying your thumb against your forefinger in any stop whatsoever, for so shall your hand be the more comelie, the more readie, and with the more ease, stop any stop the cleaner, now for your right hand, called the striking hand leane upon the bellie of the Lute with your little finger onelie, & that, neither to far from the Treble strings, neither too neere, and although you ought to lean lightlie, yet carie your hand steddilie, not sliding out of his place, also remembering, to leane lightlie upon your arme upon your Lute, for otherwise it will paine the sinewes and hinder your play. All the aforesaid had, both in memorie and practise; (the houlding of your Lute, carrying of your hand, and sitting upright with your bodie, I mean) then (in the name of God) houlding the Lute (as is aforesaid) comelie with your thumb against your forefinger (as it were ready to stop, yet but onelie holding your Lute then with the thumb of your right hand (houlding the rest of the fingers straight forth before your thumb (neither to neere the strings nor to farre off, begin to strike the first string downward with the thumb onelie, and also striking with your thumb behind your fingers say: *Base, Tenor, Contra-tenor, Great Meanes, Small Meanes Treble*. This done: then begin at the *trebles* and so goe upward viz. backward, striking them string by string with your forefinger before your thumb, that is, houlding downe your thumb behind your fingers, and name them in order saying, *Treble, Small Meanes, Great Meanes, Contra-tenor, Tenor, Base*, this doing oft, downward and upward, nameing them, and also striking them with the thumb behind the fingers, that you have it most perfect and readie both in mind & fingers..." (typist: Howard Posner)
A Varietie of Lute LessonsTitle PageVarietie of Lute-lessons: viz. Fantasies, Pavins, Galliards, Almaines, Corantoes, and Volts: Selected out of the best approued AUTHORS as well as beyond the Seas as of our owne Country. by Robert Doland. Whereunto is annexed certaine Observations belonging to LVTE-playing: By Iohn Baptisto Besardo of Visonti. Also a short Treatise therunto appertayning: by em Iohn Douland Batcheler of M U S I C K E. London: Printed for Thomas Adams, 1610. segment from BesardoFor the vse of the right hand.First,let your little finger on the belly of the Lvte, not towards the Rose,but a little lower,stretch out your Thombe with all the force you can, especially if thy Thombe be short,so that the other fingers may be carryed in a manner of a fist, and let the Thombe be held higher then them, this in the beginning will be hard.Yet they which haue a short Thombe may imitate those which strike the strings with the Thombe vnder the other fingers,which though it be nothing so elegant, yet to them it will be more easie. Now choosing one of these kinds,learne first to strike the strings more hard and cleare,whether they be one or more that are to be stricken: and that you may strike them with the right fingers, marke whether one string or more strings then one are to be stricken: if more then one, keepe this rule, let two strings which stand close together be stroken with the Thombe and fore fingers: if two strings be distant one from another so that there be one or two strings betwixt them, strike them with the Thombe and middle finger: stike also three strings,with the Thombe, the fore-finger and middle finger :foure strings with all the other fingers (excepting the little finger,) if more be to be stroken (as oft there be) keeping the same order with your fingers, let the Thombe and the fore-finger stike each of them two strings if so many be to be stroken. To know how to strike single strings, being found amongst full stops.Now that you may know with which finger you must strike those notes which are found alone without the Griffes,examine diligentlie the measure that each hath to it allotted,and if a letter be set immediatlie after any Griffe, which letter is of the same measure with the Griffe,then when you have played that Griffe,you must needes begin the Note following with your fore-finger at all times,and afterwards vse the Thombe if you meet a third note, and so goe forwards by degrees,keeping such order with the Thombe and fore-finger, so that as long as you play in the measure you begin nothing with the thombe twise together,nor follow with the fore-finger twise together, till you come to a letter or Griffe where the measure chaunges; which letter (if it were alone) must needes be stroke with the Thombe at all times.But if after the griffe you find a Note with hath ouer it any change of time, then having played that Griffe,begin the Note following with the Thombe, staying a while vpon the said Griffe or Note going before, as the nature of the time shall require. Yet failes that rule when the time going before hath a pricke put to it : for then it must be precisely obserued, that after (which hath a pricke adioyned) the Note following though it be measured with a new measure,must be strooke with the fore-finger, and the other notes with the thombe and fore-finger,one after another. Yet is ther an exception in this exception: for when you finde a Griffe measured with a pricke,as for example [1.] and there may follow it many Notes,the first whereof is [3],or if you meet with such a one [2.] and after is such a one [4], although the measure with a pricke doe go before, yet must that which follows,contrarie to this rule,begin with the Thombe. For example of this Rule and other things which I have formerly propounded, let this suffice : for the better vnderstanding whereof, note that the letters which you shall finde without a pricke added to them, Wherefore the numbers before the letters scrueth???must be stroke with the right hand Thombe :those which have a pricke set by them or vnder them,with the fore-finger, the other numberss doe shew the application of other letters played together: the number of 2.signifieth the middle finger : the number of 3.the next finger. The Example of the first Rule.
________________________c_1___c_2___c_2___a_ ___a_ __________________________ ________________________d_3___d_4___d_4___a_ ___a_ __________________________ ______________________________d_3___d_3___c_2___c_3__________________________ ____________________________________a_____c_2___c_2__________________________ ____________________________________________ ___c_1__________________________ ____________________________________________ ___a_ __________________________ Example of the second Rule. 2. __________________a____________________ ___c_2___a__c__d_____d__c__a___c_2___|| ___d_3___._____._____._____.___d_3___|| ___c_1_________________________c_1___|| ___a_ _________________________a_ ___|| _____ ___________________________ ___|| Example of the third Rule. 3 3 1 ___a_ ___c_d_f_d_c_a_c_2_____ ___c_2_____.___.___._d_4___|| ___d_3_______________d_3___|| _____ _________________ ___|| ___a_ _________________ ___|| _____ _________________ ___|| _a_ Example of the Fourth Rule 2. 3 2 ________________________ ___a_3_____a__c__d_3__|| ___a_2__e_____.__a_2__|| ___a_1__.________a_1__|| ___c_ ___________c_ __|| ______________________|| An example of an exception from the fourth Rule. ___________c_2___a___c___d_3___a_ _______a___c_2_____ ___________d_4_______.___a_ ___c_2___d___.___d_4___|| ___________d_3_____________ ___d_3___________d_3___|| _____________ ___________c_2_____ _____________ ___|| _____________ _____________ ___a_ _____________ ___|| _______________________________________________ ___|| _a_ _a_ Of playing with the two fingers.These things being well obserued, know that the two first fingers may be vsed in Diminutions very well insteed of the Thombe and the fore-finger,if they be placed with some Bases,so that the middle finger be in place of the Thombe,which Thombe whilst it is occupied in striking at least the Bases, both the hands will be graced,and that vnmanly motion of the Arme (which many cannot so well auoide) shall be shunned. But if with the said Diminutions there ne not set Bases which are to be stopped,I will not counsel you to vse the two first fingers,but rather the Thombe and the fore-finger: neither will I wish you to vse the two fore-fingers,if you be to proceede (that is to runne) into the fourth,fift or sixt string with the Diminutions set also with some parts. A good Note.Besides you shall know that low letters placed in the Bases,from the fourth Chorus to the ninth,if they be noted with this time [2] may be more fitly,nay must be all strooke with the Thombe,and most commonly so they are stroken,although this time [3] be put to them, as you shall more easily see in the example following: 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 ___________________________d_4_______a_ _____ ______________ ____ ___________________________b_1_______b_1_____ ____________a_ ___| ___________________________b_1_______d_3___b_1____________a_ ___| __________________a__c__e__ _________ ___c_2____________b_1___| _______________c___________d_3___c___a_ _____ _________a__c_2___| _____________________________ _________ ___a_ ___c__d_______ ___| I could with you take as much paines in marking the Measures,as in the other former rules,especially if you are a beginner be not too hastie in handling the {\sc Lvte}, for I dare promise you fathfully and without deceit, that nothing is more fit to second this businesse than patience in the beginning : for nothing can be gotten in an instant,and you must not thinke to play your lessons perfectly at first sight,for that is impossible. Wherefore take no other care but onely to strike all the Griffes and Notes that are in the middle betwixt them well and plainely,though slowly : for within a while,whether you will or no,you will get a habit of swiftnesse. Neither can you get that cleere expressing of Notes, vnlesse you doe vse your selfe to that in the beginnning:which cleane deliuery euery man that favours Musicke, doth farre preferre before all the swiftneese and vnreasonable noyse that can be. This more I will tell you, you must be carefull when you beginne to learne to carry your body comely, and the right hand stedely. Some there be that binde their right hand with a napkin or girdle while they play upon the {\sc Lute}, that they may seeme to move nothing but their fingers \& ioynts,which you must vse so that in running they may seeme scarcely to be moued: in like sort you must vse the Thombe and the fore-fnger. typed by Peter Dickof, <pdickof@eagle.wbm.ca> Sat, 09 Sep 1995 10:29:08 -0600 From Stammbuch of Johann Stobaeus (1600?)1. Von der Rechten Handt."Die Rechte Hand soll kurtz für dem Stege gehalten u. d. kleine finger steif aufgesetzet u. gehalten werden. D. daume soll starck ausgestrecket werden, das er fast ein glied den andern fingern vorgehe. Es sollen auch die finger einwertz unter den daumen fein zu sich gezogen werden, dz der _resonans_ fein starck klinge. "Der daume soll auswertz nit einwertz, geschlagen werden, wie die Alten zu thun pflegen, u. gemeinlich die Niederländer und Alte Teutschen. Denn es _probiret_ worden, das es weit besser den daumen auswertz zuschlagen, klinget reiner scherffer u. heller, dz ander klinget gar faull u. dümpffig. "Auswertz gebrauchen den daumen diese Berümbte Lautenisten, _In Germania: Gregorius Ruwet [Huwet], d. Dulandus Anglus,_ welcher doch anfänglich einwendig den daumen gebraucht. _In Italia:_ Zu Rohm _Laurentinus,_ zu _Padua Hortensius._ _In Gallia_ Borquet , Mercurius Polandus_ u. andere mehr. "Wenn volle griffe zuschlagen, gebraucht man alle 4 finger. "Wenn _Coloraturen,_ bisweilen mit dem daumen und Zeiger, bisweilen d. Zeiger u. mittelste finger wie drunten bey den _Coloraturen_ soll gedacht werden." --From Donna May Arnold, "The Lute Music and Related Writing in the Stammbuch of Johann Stobaeus," Ph.D. diss., No. Texas State University, 1982, pp. 102-3. She provides only a summary, no translation. I don't think the instructions should be attr. to Stobaeus. He may simply have acquired an already completed book (his name is squeezed onto one page), or had a teacher or someone write them into his Stammbuch (a S'buch is a kind of autograph book, or commonplace book). They seem to be related to Besard's instructions. The S'buch also has another set of instructions in the older style of Waissel. ajn (boston). here is a translation by Stewart McCoy, June, 2001 [amendment by Markus Lutz] 1. On the Right Hand. The right hand is to be held close to the bridge, and the little finger firmly placed and held down. The thumb is to be stretched out strongly, so that it stands out almost as a limb [so that it stands out one knuckle] to the other fingers. The fingers are to be pulled cleanly inwards under the thumb, so that the sound resonates cleanly and strongly. The thumb is to be struck outwards, not inwards like the people in the past used to do, and commonly the Dutch and old Germans. For it has been proved that it is far better to strike the thumb outwards, it sounds purer, sharper, and brighter, the other sounds quite rotten and muffled. These famous lutenists used the thumb outside: In Germany: Gregorius Ruwet [=Huwet], Dowland the Englishman, who at first used his thumb the other way. In Italy: in Rome Laurencini, in Padua Hortensius. In France Bocquet, Mercure the Pole, and many more. If you strike full chords, you use all four fingers [=three fingers + thumb]; for divisions, [play] sometimes with the thumb and index finger, sometimes with the index and middle finger, see below under Divisions.
The Burwell Lute Tutor (ca. 1660-1672)The Burwell Lute Tutor (ca. 1660-1672)[I have added some punctuation and expanded some abbreviations; otherwise unedited the excerpts.] [fol. 16]The 6th Chap:... First the Carriage of the handes The Comely posture in playing And the Strikeing of the Stringes ...[Several paragraphs, mainly about posture, omitted]...For the right hand it must be placed betweene the Rose and the Bridge but nearest to the bridge. Your hands must lye vppon the belly of the Lute with the little finger onely which must be as it were glued vnto it and Keepe the Thumbe as much as one can leaueing vppon the Base. It must be before all the rest of the hand marching as the Captaine of the fingers. That hand must be riseing in the middle in the forme of an Arche that you may not smother the Stringes. [fol. 16v]For the left hand the posture of it is more difficult. The Thumbe must be placed vnder the Necke of the Lute betweene the forefinger and the middle finger and betweene the brimme of the necke and the middle of it, walking with the hand vpp and downe the necke of the Lute soe that the hand be lifted vpp and thrusted by the wrist in the forme of an Arche. And therein consiste the grace of the hand. The fingers must be bowed inwardly and the fingers ends as neare the Lute as possibly they may be and neare one another without touching one another Soe that the hand covers fower frettes. When you beginne to play the hand must cover B: C: D: E [i.e., the first four frets]. If you must goe lower the Thumbe must be as vsefull and as nimble as the fingers. I haue noe need to expresse the hands must be kept white and cleane. It is the marke of a Gentleman and a Lady. And it were better never play of the Lute then to play with nasty hands. For the nailes they must be short and smoothly cutt which some doe with a little file. For the strikeing of the Lute that concerneth rather the perfection then the begining of Learning yet in the beginning tis to be observed to strike hard and neare the bridge but take heed that you never lay the little finger vppon the Bridge or behind the Bridge. Neither strike the Stringes with the nailes nor soe hard as if you would tare them in peeces but never leave fingers vpon the stringes, the Thumb as much as you please vpon the Base. When you beginne to play something well you must alter your way of strikeing and flatter (as we speake) the Lute that is to strike it sometimes gently. For as the Lute is a kind of a Language you must imitate the oratours who now raise there voice and then abate it. Now they gett asleepe the hearer and now they awaken him; now they charme him and now they amaze him. And with the same organ doe expresse twoe sorts of Sounds. Likewise in playing of the Lute, in some places you must strike hard and in others soe gently that one may hardly heare you. That variety is pleasing and produces attention of the hearer. It belonges onely to the Lute to touch soe the same Instrument that if one did not see you he would thinke that you played vppon twoe severall Lutes. For the left hand you cannot stopp too hard vppon the Stringes and as neare the frettes as you can. ... Original: The Burwell Lute Tutor. Facsimile edition with an introductory study by Robert Spencer. Leeds: Boethius Press, 1974. An instruction book for lute, belonging to "Elizabeth Burwell" (signature on the first leaf), ca. 1660-1672. Most of the instructions are in the hand of Elizabeth Burwell's daughter, Mary Burwell. Errors are corrected in a different hand, most likely that of the lute instructor (possibly John Rogers, d. 1676), who also copied the musical examples in tablature. Rogers was probably himself a pupil of Ennemond Gaultier. The manuscript contains pieces by Du But, Pinel, Vincent, the Marquis de Mortmar, Ennemond Gaultier, and Jacques Gaultier. Reversed and inverted, the other end of the book is a 328-page collection of medical remedies. [Fol. 99v of the lute treatise is p. 328 of the medical portion.] The book, previously the property of Captain Anthony Hammond of Ingham, Norfolk, is now in the private collection of Robert Spencer. See Dart, "Miss Mary Burwell's Instruction Book for the Lute," The Galpin Society Journal, XI (1958), 3-62; Spencer, "Introduction" to The Burwell Lute Tutor; Poulton, "Checklist of Recently Discovered English Lute Manuscripts," Early Music, III 2 (1975), 124-125.; Boetticher, Handschriftlich UEberlieferte Lauten- und Gitarrentabulaturen des 15. bis 18. Jahrhunderts (RISM B VII), 242-243. Gordon J. Callon, School of Music, Acadia University
Baron"Study of the Lute" by Ernst Gottlieb Baron1727, from the translation by Douglas Alton Smith,
page 121 As to the question of where to strike the strings of the lute so that the tone will be powerfull enough, it will serve to know that this must be in the center or the space between the rose and the bridge, for there the contact will have the greatest effect. The further toward the fingerboard the strings are struck with the right hand, the softer and weaker will be the tone - it will lose power, so to speak. However the player can certainly also move back and forth, once he has the necessary skill, when he wishes to change [ the tone ] and express something. Those still in the beginning stages will notbe able to do this, for such varaition demands considerable asurance. (Typed by Wayne Cripps)
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